Slave Rebellion's Forgotten Hero: John Horse

Few Americans know his story, but the Black Seminole warrior John Horse (1812-1882) was probably the most successful black freedom fighter in U.S. history. John Horse's mother was an African woman whose name is lost to history. His father -- and master -- was Charles Cavallo, a Seminole Indian. John Horse was born a slave, but in 1812 Seminole bondage was radically different from southern-style slavery. Under the Seminoles' loose system, slaves and free blacks lived in their own towns, often at a considerable distance from Indian masters. The blacks built villages on the same model as the Indians, living in chickees -- elevated, palmetto-plank homes adapted to Florida's climate and topography. Blacks elected their own leaders and in general conducted themselves more like military allies than slaves.

Seminole Indian chief Holata Mico, or Billy Bowlegs, 1852, with whom the black leader Jim Bowlegs was associated. At the time of John Horse's exodus in 1849, Jim Bowlegs was in Florida attempting to help the U.S. Army negotiate the emigration of Billy Bowlegs. Florida Photographic Collection..

Everyone has heard of General Colin Powell, but two centuries before him there was a black general in St. Augustine. His name was Jorge Biassou, and he was one of the original leaders of the slave uprising in Haiti in the 1790s. In the twists and turns of international politics, he became a Spanish general. He was sent to St. Augustine in 1796, as the second-highest paid official of the colony, and stayed here until his death in 1801. His funeral was held at the Cathedral on the Plaza downtown, and he is buried in Tolomato Cemetery on Cordova Street.

A black militia saved St. Augustine from invasion at the time of the War of 1812, and its members were awarded land grants in gratitude by the Spanish governor.

In contrast to the other Southeastern Indians, the Seminoles practiced a form of slavery that was entirely unique across all of North America. The Seminole system had no slave codes or harsh mechanisms for punishment. Black Seminoles did not work for their masters on a daily basis. In general, they were simply required to render annual tribute and to be available to defend the community.

The accomplishments of John Horse were amazing, despite his obscurity. In Florida, he rose to lead the holdouts in the country's largest slave uprising. For forty years afterwards he led his people, the African allies of Seminole Indians, on an epic quest from Florida to Mexico to secure a free homeland.

Over a long life he defeated leading US generals, met two Presidents, served as an adviser to Seminole chiefs, a Scout for the US Army, and a decorated officer in the Mexican military. He defended free black settlements on three frontiers, and was said to love children, whiskey, and his noble white horse, "American." In 1882, he fulfilled his quest for a free homeland with the final act of his life, securing a land grant in Northern Mexico. His descendants live on the land grant to this day.

John Jefferson, son of Joe Coon and grandson of John Horse, circa 1900. Jefferson is wearing the trumpeter's uniform of Troop D, Tenth Cavalry, and sports a marksman's medal. A descendant told the author that Jefferson fought in the Spanish - American War, served in World War I, chased Pancho Villa with Pershing, and had seven wives. He served with the Scouts from 1905 until the unit disbanded in 1914.